8. CELL BIOLOGY AND BIOTECHNOLOGY
Cell: The structural and functional unit of the
body is called as cell.
Tissue: A group of cells that
performs the similar function is called as tissue.
Cytology: The branch of biology which deals with the study structure, types and organelles of the cell, cell division and other aspects of the cell is called as cytology.
National Centre for Cell Science – Pune
Instem– Bengaluru
Stem Cells
Special types of cells present in
the body of a multicellular organisms that can give rise to cells of all other
types are called as stem cells.
The zygote formed after fertilization of gametes contains mass
of cells, which are similar cells. These are the stem cells. They can give rise
to new organism. Stem cells can be used to produce new tissues in laboratory.
These cells also play important role in wound healing.
Differentiation of stem cells
Stem cells can form any
type of cell during the further development. The formation of different types
of tissues to perform specific and different functions is called as
differentiation of the stem cells. Once the new tissues are formed their
capacity to differentiate is lost. Later they can form cells which are similar
to them.
Sources of stem cells
Stem cells are present in the
umbilical cord of pregnant mother, in embryo, in red bone marrow, in blastocyst
stage of embryonic development, in blood, in adipose connective tissue of adult
human beings and also in placenta.
Preservation of stem cells
The stem cell samples are
carefully collected from umbilical cord blood, red bone marrow or early embryo
and are preserved in small, sterile vials. These vials are stored in liquid
nitrogen at -1350C to -1900C.
Types of stem cells
Depending upon source, stem cells are of two types as follows
1) Embryonic stem cells:
Embryo is formed by divisions of zygote. These embryonic cells
continuously divide by mitosis. These cells are stem cells. But by the 14th
day of conception cell differentiation starts. This differentiation causes
formation of 220 different types of cells i.e. osteocytes, hepatocytes and
neurons from the cells. Before the cell differentiation, the embryonic cells are
called as embryonic stem cells. These stem cells are primary, undifferentiated
cells having ability to multiply. These cells are the parent cells of all types
of human cells.
The property of stem cells to develop into different types of
cells is called as pleuripotency.Stem cells can collected well
before the beginning of differentiation i.e. during 5th- 7th
day and cultured with certain biochemical stimuli in laboratory. Based on the
type of stimulus, stem cells transforms themselves into desired type of cells,
later tissues and then organs.
2) Adult
stem cells:
Stem cells
obtained from the adult body are called as adult stem cells. Stem cells can be
obtained from the red bone marrow, adipose connective tissue and blood. Stem
cells can be obtained from the cord blood immediate after birth.
Uses of stem cells
1)
Stem cells are used to replace the dead and functionless cells in case of
conditions like diabetes, myocardial
infarction, Alzheimer’s disease, Parkinson’s disease etc.
2)
Stem cells are used to produce blood cells required conditions like anemia,
thalassemia, leukemia etc.
3)
In organ transplantation, stem cells can used and they can help in the
transplantation of of new organs.
Organ transplantation
If less efficient or completely functionless organ of the body
is changed, the life of such patient can be saved. Kidney or skin
transplantation can be done on the patient if there is suitable Donor for the
same. Availability of healthy donor is an important requirement in organ
transplantation. Various factors like blood group, diseases, disorders, age,
etc of the donor and recipient need to be paid attention during
transplantation.For kidney and skin live Donor can be taken but Liver,heart,
eyes can be donated after death.
Organ
and body donation
The body is not of any use after the death. Many organs
remain functional for certain period even after death occurs under specific
conditions. Such organs can be used to save the life of other needful persons.
Life of many
people can be saved by organ and body donation. Blinds can regain the vision.
Liver, kidney, heart, heart valves, skin, etc. can be donated. Similarly body
can be made available for research in medical studies.
Question: Why some of the organs in
human body are most valuable?
Ans- 1) The body can be in best health if all the vital organs of the body are
also in the best condition.
2) Brain, kidney, heart, liver etc. are some such vital organs which are the most
essential for proper metabolism and functioning of the body
3) One cannot survive if any of the vital organs are not functioning properly.
Biotechnology
Biotechnology is bringing about artificial genetic changes and hybridization in
organisms for human welfare.
Cytology, biochemistry, molecular biology and genetic
engineering are different branches of science that are included in
biotechnology. Improving the agricultural field production of high class
varieties of crops and suitable form products through tissue culture are the
aspects in which biotechnology is largely used. Pharmaceutical experiments to
produce antibodies vitamins and hormones like insulin are taking support of
biotechnological principles.
Main areas in biotechnology
1)
Microbiology-Using
microbial abilities to form Yoghurt from milk & alcohol from molasses.
2) By increasing the productivity of the specific cell to manufacture
antibiotics and vaccines.
3) Use of biomolecules like DNA and protein in human welfare.
4) Development of plants animals and products of desired quality by gene
manipulation.
5) Production of human growth hormone with the help of genetically modified
bacteria.
6) By using entire cell or tissue non genetic biotechnology experiments are
done.
Benefits
of biotechnology
1) Increasing the per hectare yield
of the crop land.
2) Development of disease resistant varieties of crops
3) Fast fruit setting varieties are developed that increase the per annum
yield.
4) Development of stress resistant varieties which can with stand in adverse
condition.
Commercial
applications of biotechnology
1) Crop biotechnology
a) Genes of two different crops are
recombined to form hybrids of various crops. This is especially useful for
fruits.
b) Crops developed with desired characters by integrating cl foreign
gene with their genome are called a genetically modified crops.
BT cotton
A gene isolated from the bacterium bacillus thuringiensis and
integrated it with the gene of cotton. The toxin which is fatal for bollworm
was produced in leaves and bolls of cotton. If bollworm feeds on leaves the
toxin destroys its elementary canal and the bollworm dies.
BT brinjal
This variety of brinjal is developed by using the gene isolated
from bacillus thuringiensis. Is improved variety of brinjal is the pest as the
BT Cotton does.
Golden rice
A gene synthesizing the vitamin A has been introduced in this
variety of rice. As compared to the normal variety, this variety contains 23
times more amount of Beta carotene.
Herbicide tolerant plants
Due to biotechnology, herbicide
tolerant plant varieties of crops are being developed. Due to this, it has
become possible to selectively destroy the weeds.
C) Biofertilizers
Due to the use of biofertilizers instead of chemical
fertilizers, nitrogen fixation and phosphate solubilization abilities of the
plants are improved. Mainly the bacteria like rhizobium, azotobacter, nostoc,
anabana and plants like azolla are used as biofertilizers.
2. Animal husbandry
Artificial insemination and embryo transfer are used in animal
husbandry. It helps to improve both the quality and quantity of animal
products. Animals with more strength have been developed for hard work.
3. Human health
To improve and to manage the human health diagnosis and
treatment of diseases have to be focused. Diagnosis of diabetes, heart diseases
and infectious diseases such as AIDS and dengue can be done rapidly due to
biotechnology.
a) Vaccines and vaccination
Vaccine:
The antigen containing material given to a person or animal to
acquire either permanent or temporary immunity against a specific pathogen or
disease is called a vaccine.
Vaccination
1) Vaccination is the administration of vaccine. Vaccine is
the antigen. It is given to a person or even to animals for acquiring immunity
against particular pathogens or diseases.
2) In olden days vaccines were prepared with the help of completely are
partially killed pathogens.But this method causes some inconvenience. Some
persons were allergic to such raw vaccines or they used to construct the same
disease through vaccine. 3) Now
the vaccines are produced by using biotechnology. These vaccines are artificial
which are synthesized in the laboratory.
4) The antigen is produced with the help of gene of the pathogen such vaccine
becomes safe for administering.
5) These antigenic proteins are injected to people to make their immune system
strong. This process of vaccination is absolutely safe.
Edible vaccine
The vaccines which are given as a food by incorporating them
into the food stuff are called as edible vaccines.
Transgenic potatoes are
produced with the help of biotechnology which contain vaccine that act against
bacteria like vibrio cholerae and E. coli. If raw potatoes are consumed then
the immunity is generated in the body of a person. However, eating only raw
potatoes generate the immunity against cholera and the disease caused due to E.
coli.
b) Treatment
Biotechnology
is useful for production of hormones like insulin somatotropin and blood clotting factors.
c) Interferon
Interferon is a group of small sized protein molecule used in
treatment of viral diseases. These are produced in blood. Nowadays with the
help of biotechnology transgenic E. Coli are used for production of interferon.
d) Gene therapy
To treat genetic disorders in somatic cells has become possible
by gene therapy due to biotechnology.
Example: phenylketonuria can be treated with gene therapy.
e) Cloning
Production of replica of any sale or organ or entire organism is
called cloning.
There are two types of cloning namely reproductive cloning and therapeutic
cloning.
1) Reproductive
cloning
In reproductive cloning, a clone is produced by fusion of
A nucleus of diploid somatic cell with the enucleated ovum of anybody. In the
process the sperm or male gamete is not needed.
2) Therapeutic
cloning
This technique is used for treatment purpose. Stem cells
are derived from the sale formed in laboratory by the union of somatic cell
nucleus with the enucleated egg cell.
Gene cloning can also be done to for millions of
copies of same gene such genes are used for gene therapy and other purposes.
Due to cloning technique that Inheritance of hereditary diseases can be
controlled continuation of generations can be achieved and certain
characteristic genes can be enhanced.
3) Industrial Products / white biotechnology
Various
industrial chemicals can be produced through less expensive processes for example can be produced from sugar
molasses with the help of transgenic yeast.
4) Environment and Biotechnology
Now it
is possible to solve environment related various problems with the help of
biotechnology. Microbes are useful on large scale while production of composed
by treatment on solid organic waste material. Bioremediation,biopesticides,biofertilizers,
biosensors etc. are some new concepts in biotechnological methods.
Bioremediation
Absorption or destruction of toxic Chemicals and harmful pollutant with
the help of plants and micro-organisms is called as bioremediation.
If plants are used for this purpose it is called as phytoremediation.
* Pseudomonas bacteria are useful for
cleaning the hydrocarbon and oil pollutants from soil & water.
* The fern Pterisvitata can absorb the arsenic from the soil.
* Sunflower can absorb uranium and arsenic.
* Grasses like alfalfa clover and rye are used in phytoremediation
* Genetically modified variety of Indian mustard can absorb Selenium from soil.
* The bacterium Deinococcousradiodurans is used to absorb the radiations
from radioactive debris.
5. Food biotechnology
Food
items like bread cheese wine beer Yoghurt vinegar are produced with the help of
microorganisms. These food items are probably the oldest one produced with the
help of biotechnology.
6. DNA fingerprinting
DNA
sequence of each person is unique as that of the fingerprints. due to this
identity of any person can be established with the help of its available DNA. This
is called as DNA fingerprinting.
Significance of DNA fingerprinting
1) It is mainly used in forensic Sciences to confirm the identity of the
criminal.
2) Identity of parents in case of disputed parentage for any child can be
understood by taking DNA fingerprints of both the parents and child.
Note: 1) Oil eating bacteria
was discovered by Dr.Anand Mohan chakravarty.
2) Centre for DNA
fingerprinting and Diagnostics is located in Hyderabad.
Dolly
1) Dolly was the first mammalian cloned Sheep.
2) It was born in Scotland by the process of cloning.
3) The Finn dorset ship was chosen and her diploid nucleus from the under cell
was introduced
into the ovum is haploid nucleus was removed. This enucleated ovum was of Scottish
sheep.
4) The age was been introduced into uterus of another Scottish sheep and it
grew into Dolly.
5) Dolly resembled exactly like Finn dorset sheep whose diploid nucleus was
used. None of the characters of Scottish sheep was seen in Dolly.
Important stages in agricultural development
Green Revolution
1) In agriculture different methods
used to harvest maximum yield from minimum land these methods are collectively
called as green revolution.
2) Dr. M. S.Swaminathan is called father of Green revolution in India while Dr.
Norman Borlaug has done the similar efforts in US.
3) Improved varieties of wheat and rice proper use of fertilizers and
pesticides and water management has led to the increased production of food
grains and their by large population had been saved from hunger.
4) green revolution has created abundance of the grains for Indian population.
Research institutes and laboratories
in India
1) Indian Agricultural Research
Institute New Delhi
2) National citrus Research Institute Nagpur
3) Indian Institute of Sciences and national pomegranate Research Institute
Solapur.
White Revolution
1) Few years back at some places milk
and Milk products where abundant but they did not reach all the consumers.
2) Dr.VergheseKurien started the Cooperative Movement in the direction to
produce Operation Flood.
3) The use of biotechnology was also done to increase the milk production.
4) Different experiments were performed for quality control, near dairy
products where thought of and preservation methods were improved.
5) This created White Revolution Amul from Anand has now reached International
standards.
Blue revolution
1) Production of various useful
aquatic organisms with the help of water is called as Blue revolution
2) In India the aquaculture of different freshwater and Marine organisms is
being done with the help of fishery scientists.
3) Government of India has over to increase the production by increasing the
people for pisciculture by launching the program ‘Nil Kranti mission 2016’.
4) Freshwater fishes like Rohu, Catla and other fishery products like shrimp
and lobsters are being cultured on large scale.
Fertilizers
Organic manure and chemical
fertilizers are used in agriculture. Due to the use of manual water holding
capacity of the soil improves. Upper layer of the soil Asian share in
agriculture is formed due to the humus formation. Various Essential elements
like npk can be available to crops due to earthworms and fungii. In
hydroponics, Liquid chemical fertilizers are used. Excessive use of chemical
fertilizers causes decrease in fertility of soil.
Insecticides
Plants have natural immunity to fight
against infections. Natural pest control measures such as insectivorous frocks
and birds keep the pest population under control. But in an attempt to increase
the yield man excessively use the pesticides and insecticides. These are toxic
to all resident organisms. The insecticides like DDT, Malathion,
Chloropyriphos also contaminated water and soil.
Apiculture
1) Apiculture is rearing of
honey bees to obtain products such as honey and wax.
2) In such, practice artificial hives are placed. By such practice,
the honey can be extracted without causing any harm to the
honey bees are their hives.
Cultivation of medicinal plants
1) In Ayurveda different medicines are traditionally
obtained from plants.
2) Now due to deforestation, the medicinal plants and Herbs
are becoming rare. Hence theircultivation is to be done.
3) The entire world people have understood the importance of Holy Basil,
adulsa etc.
4) In some of the allopathic medicines too, the plant extracts are used.
Fruit processing
1) Fruits are perishable food stuff. They
are spoil soon if not consumed immediately.
2) It needs the processing in such a way that it can be used throughout
the year.
3) Fruit processing includes various methods ranging from storage
in cold storage to drying,
salting, air tight packing, preparing murabba, evaporating
etc.
4) The preserve products also fetch financial benefits.
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